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{\operator Mabbott}{\creatim\yr2002\mo1\dy9\hr19\min27}{\revtim\yr2006\mo3\dy23\hr15\min38}{\version13}{\edmins44}{\nofpages3}{\nofwords1277}{\nofchars7282}{\*\company Endowood Productions}{\nofcharsws8542}{\vern16391}}\paperw11906\paperh16838 
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{\pntxtb (}{\pntxta )}}\pard\plain \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs20\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b\fs24\insrsid4744641 TAXONOMY & SYSTEMATICS
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\fs18\insrsid4744641 This is
 not an attempt to fully explain biological systematics but to provide the background logic for the discussion of animal and plant names below (nomenclature). The examples relate to ladybirds (Coccinellidae).
\par 
\par }{\fs22\insrsid4744641 The basis of biological classification is the }{\b\fs22\insrsid4744641 species}{\b\fs22\insrsid15741684  }{\fs22\insrsid15741684 (plural species)}{\fs22\insrsid4744641 
.  All organisms within a species have similar chromosome structure and, in sexual animals, males and females can mate to produce viable, }{\b\fs22\insrsid4744641 fertile}{\fs22\insrsid4744641 
 offspring.  They will have similar anatomy although the sexes may differ considerably 
in size and appearance (sexual dimorphism).  Within a species there may be variations in superficial appearance (as with the patterns on the 2-spot ladybird) due to genetic differences. When these species are particularly marked or confined to particular 
ecological niches or geographic locations, they may be described as sub-species or races..
\par 
\par Species form the basis of a hierarchical system which links together the most closely related species, presumably on the basis of their phylogenetic, evolutionary development.
\par }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 
\par Closely related species may be grouped into a }{\b\fs24\insrsid4744641 genus}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 
 (plural genera).  Congeneric species usually share some outward characteristics.  They may even be able to mate but will not produce fertile progeny.  The 2-spot and 10-spot ladybirds are both members of the genus }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Adalia}{
\fs24\insrsid4744641 ;  in captivity they may be persuaded to mate and lay eggs but the }{\b\fs24\insrsid15741684\charrsid15741684 hybrid}{\fs24\insrsid15741684  }{\fs24\insrsid4744641\charrsid15741684 offspring}{\fs24\insrsid4744641  will be infertile.

\par 
\par Similar species are grouped into a }{\b\fs24\insrsid4744641 family}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 : thus all ladybirds belong to the family Coccinellidae.  Within a family, appearance may be quite variable in shape (thus members of the genera }{
\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Adalia}{\fs24\insrsid4744641  and }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Platynaspis}{\fs24\insrsid4744641  look very different)  and behaviour (}{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Epilachna }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 are vegetarians, }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 
Coccinella}{\fs24\insrsid4744641  are aphid-eaters).  However, they are clearly different from other related families: they have h
ard forewings (elytra) whereas the family Staphylinidae have shortened elytra on long bodies and the Cantharidae have soft elytra.  }{\insrsid4744641 
Within families, genera may be grouped into sub-families or tribes which have similar structures and behaviour: thus the Epilachnini are herbivores with distinct mandibular (jaw) structure.
\par }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 
\par Families are placed into }{\b\fs24\insrsid4744641 orders }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 which are divided into }{\b\fs24\insrsid4744641 classes}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 
.  The class Insecta (Hexapoda) contains many orders which are clearly distinct:  whereas the forewings of the order Coleoptera
 (beetles) are hardened to some extent and take little part in flight, those of the Hymenoptera (bees and relatives) are strongly powered for flight while the hindwings of the Diptera (true flies) are reduced to tiny }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 halteres }{
\fs24\insrsid4744641 which have become very sensitive flight control organs.
\par 
\par }{\insrsid4744641 There are many websites dealing with taxonomy but the most ambitious is the '}{\field{\*\fldinst {\insrsid4744641  HYPERLINK "http://phylogeny.arizona.edu/tree/phylogeny.html" }{\insrsid5535255 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6200000068007400740070003a002f002f007000680079006c006f00670065006e0079002e006100720069007a006f006e0061002e006500640075002f0074007200650065002f007000680079006c006f0067006500
6e0079002e00680074006d006c00000000000000000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs15\ul\cf2\insrsid4744641 Tree of Life}}}{\insrsid4744641 ' project.
\par The taxonomy and nomenclature of ladybirds is summarised by }{\field{\*\fldinst {\insrsid4744641  HYPERLINK "http://www.phil.uni-passau.de/didaktik_natw/fuersch/taxonomy.html" }{\insrsid5535255 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b8400000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e007000680069006c002e0075006e0069002d007000610073007300610075002e00640065002f0064006900640061006b00740069006b005f006e006100
740077002f0066007500650072007300630068002f007400610078006f006e006f006d0079002e00680074006d006c000000000000000000000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs15\ul\cf2\insrsid4744641 F\'fcrsch}}}{\insrsid4744641 .  There are notes on the }{\field{\*\fldinst {
\insrsid4744641  HYPERLINK "HIGHTAX.rtf" }{\insrsid5535255 {\*\datafield 
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}{\fldrslt {\cs15\ul\cf2\insrsid4744641 higher taxonomy}}}{\insrsid4744641  of invertebrates on another page.
\par 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\b\fs24\insrsid4744641 NOMENCLATURE
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid4744641 
\par For the purposes of identification, study and taxonom
y it is essential that all species have a definitive name.  Most insects don't have an English name.  Even amongst animals, such as the birds, which have distinct  names in English, these names will only be recognised within English-speaking countries (an
d not necessarily then: the American and British robins are unrelated animals!). Therefore internationally accepted names are written in Latin and have three parts:
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4744641 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 1\tab}}\pard \ql \fi-720\li720\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx720{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls1\pnrnot0\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent360\pnsp120\pnhang }
\faauto\ls1\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\fs24\insrsid4744641 The generic name: }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 e.g. }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 genus }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Subcoccinella}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 ;
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4744641 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 2\tab}}\pard \ql \fi-720\li720\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx720{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls1\pnrnot0\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent360\pnsp120\pnhang }
\faauto\ls1\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\fs24\insrsid4744641 The specific name: }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 e.g.}{\fs24\insrsid4744641  species }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 vigintiquattuorpunctata}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 ;
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4744641 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 3\tab}}\pard \ql \fi-720\li720\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx720{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls1\pnrnot0\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent360\pnsp120\pnhang }
\faauto\ls1\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\fs24\insrsid4744641 The name (with date) of the original describer: }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 e.g. }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 (Linnaeus, 1758).
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\insrsid4744641 [the round brackets indicate that the generic name has changed since Linnaeus described the organism.  The describers name is not always included in general w
orks, such as this, but must be mentioned in scientific papers - it is a literature reference in case two describers have used the same name.]
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\fs24\insrsid4744641 NB: The generic name always has a capital letter, the specific never; both names are italicised in print or underlined in hand-writing.  
\par Thus the name }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Subcoccinella vigintiquattuorpunctata }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 (Linnaeus, 1758) would be recognised as the 24-spot ladybird by coleopterists.  }{\fs22\insrsid4744641 
When writing for a broader audience, it is common to add some of the Class, Order, Family, sub-Family; e.g. in this case, the 24-spot is a beetle of the ladybird family so (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) would be placed after the scientific name.}{
\fs24\insrsid4744641  After the first mention of the full name it is conventional to abbreviate the generic name to its initial: }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 S. vigintiquattuorpunctata}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 .
\par }{\b\fs24\insrsid4744641 ABBREVIATIONS}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 
\par The full scientific (binomial, Linnean) name for the 24-spot is rather lengthy!  This is a problem with many beetles, especially ladybirds.  To conserve ink and trees two forms of abbreviation are used:
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4744641 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 1\tab}}\pard \ql \fi-720\li720\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx720{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls2\pnrnot0\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent360\pnsp120\pnhang }
\faauto\ls2\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\fs24\insrsid4744641 In addition to abbreviating the generic name, the Latin numeric part of the specific name is printed as figures.  Thus -
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\widctlpar{\*\pn \pnlvlcont\ilvl0\ls0\pnrnot0\pndec }\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 S. vigintiquattuorpunctata}{\fs24\insrsid4744641  becomes }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 S. 24-punctata}{
\fs24\insrsid4744641 
\par }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Adalia bipunctata }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 becomes }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 A. 2-punctata}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 .
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4744641 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 2\tab}}\pard \ql \fi-720\li720\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx720{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls2\pnrnot0\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent360\pnsp120\pnhang }
\faauto\ls2\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\fs24\insrsid4744641 Amongst ladybird specialists a shorthand form is used which takes the initials of both the genus and the non-numeric part of the species name. Thus -
\par }\pard \ql \li720\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 S. 24-punctata }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 becomes S24P
\par }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 A. 2-punctata }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 becomes A2P
\par }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Halyzia sedecimguttata }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 becomes H16G
\par }{\fs22\insrsid4744641 This notation mu
st only be used when all parties clearly understand the meanings! There are alternative codes such as taking the first three letters of the generic and specific names; thus S. 24-punctata would become SubVig &c &c ......
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\b\fs24\insrsid4744641 SYNONYMY
\par }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 For various reasons, genera and species are renamed from time to time.  The three most common reasons are - 
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\fs22\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4744641 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 1\tab}}\pard \ql \fi-720\li720\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx720{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls3\pnrnot0\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent360\pnsp120\pnhang }
\faauto\ls3\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\fs22\insrsid4744641 An older name or spelling (having precedence) is unearthed from the literature. Thus }{\i\fs22\insrsid4744641 Rhyzobius }{\fs22\insrsid4744641 replaces }{\i\fs22\insrsid4744641 Rhizobius}{
\fs22\insrsid4744641 ;
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\fs22\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4744641 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 2\tab}}\pard \ql \fi-720\li720\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx720{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls3\pnrnot0\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent360\pnsp120\pnhang }
\faauto\ls3\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\fs22\insrsid4744641 Taxonomists consider that two or more species within a genus are not so closely related as previously thought and the genus is }{\b\fs22\ul\insrsid4744641\charrsid4744641 split}{
\fs22\insrsid4744641 : thus }{\i\fs22\insrsid4744641 Adalia}{\fs22\insrsid4744641  many years ago was considered a member of }{\i\fs22\insrsid4744641 Coccinella}{\fs22\insrsid4744641 ;
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\fs22\lang2057\langfe1033\langnp2057\insrsid4744641 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 3\tab}}\pard \ql \fi-720\li720\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx720{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls3\pnrnot0\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent360\pnsp120\pnhang }
\faauto\ls3\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\fs22\insrsid4744641 Taxonomists consider that two genera are more closely related than thought and the genera are }{\b\fs22\ul\insrsid4744641\charrsid4744641 lumped}{\fs22\insrsid4744641  into one: thus }{
\i\fs22\insrsid4744641 Adonia variegata}{\fs22\insrsid4744641  is considered part of }{\i\fs22\insrsid4744641 Hippodamia}{\fs22\insrsid4744641 .
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\fs22\insrsid4744641 
\par }{\b\fs22\insrsid4744641 NAMES of LADYBIRDS}{\fs22\insrsid4744641 
\par }{\insrsid4744641 For such a small family, the Coccinellidae seem}{\insrsid14767738 s}{\insrsid4744641  to have suffered a lot of renaming.  The following lists British species which may have alternative names in the standard British
 textbooks.  The older, not preferred names are given in brackets.
\par 
\par }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Rhyzobius }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 (}{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Rhizobius}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 ) all species
\par }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Psyllobora }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 (}{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Thea}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 ) }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 
\par Tytthaspis}{\fs24\insrsid4744641  (}{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Micraspis}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 ) }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 16-punctata
\par Hippodamia }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 (}{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Adonia}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 ) }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 variegata
\par Epilachna }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 (}{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Henosepilachna}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 ) }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 argus}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 
\par }{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 Coccinella magnifica }{\fs24\insrsid4744641 (}{\i\fs24\insrsid4744641 distincta}{\fs24\insrsid4744641 )
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14767738 {\b\fs22\insrsid14767738 
\par COMMON NAMES
\par Can be a problem.  }{\fs22\insrsid14767738 Often they are not \lquote common\rquote  but contrived to avoid using the Latin names.  They may vary from region to within a region and, especially, between countries
 and continents (European colonists tended to give the name of one of their native animals or plants to the 
local ones they found in their new lands. The best example is the American robin which bears no similarity to the European robin except for being a red-breasted bird!  
It is always preferable to mention the proper, scientific name at least once in any correspondence and conservation \endash  to ensure that all parties are talking about the same thing.}{\fs22\insrsid14767738\charrsid14767738 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\fs24\insrsid4744641 
\par }\pard\plain \s1\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel0\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\insrsid4744641 COMMON NAMES }{\insrsid14767738 of LADYBIRDS }{\insrsid4744641 in OTHER LANGUAGES

\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs20\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\insrsid14767738 A list of the vernacular names of NW Europe are given in }{\field{\*\fldinst {\insrsid14767738  
HYPERLINK "names.rtf" }{\insrsid14767738 {\*\datafield 
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\cs15\ul\cf2\insrsid14767738\charrsid14767738 rtf}}}{\insrsid14767738  and }{\field{\*\fldinst {\insrsid14767738  HYPERLINK "Nomeclature.xls" }{\insrsid14767738 {\*\datafield 
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}{\fldrslt {\cs15\ul\cf2\insrsid14767738\charrsid14767738 Excel}}}{\insrsid14767738  formats. 
\par }{\insrsid4744641 The following sites give national or regional lists of ladybirds (often other insects) with their vernacular names:
\par Walloons (Belgian French) http:/www.wallonie.be/cgi/dgrne/sibw/sibw.esp.list2.pl?VAR=Coccinelles 
\par Belgian/Dutch: }{\field{\*\fldinst {\insrsid4744641  HYPERLINK "http://users:pandora.be/jeroenm/coccinula/lijst.html" }{\insrsid5535255 {\*\datafield 
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\par French (Canadian): }{\field{\*\fldinst {\insrsid4744641  HYPERLINK "http://esc-sec.org/scientificnames.html" }{\insrsid5535255 {\*\datafield 
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\insrsid4744641    (many other insects)
\par Finnish: }{\field{\*\fldinst {\insrsid4744641  HYPERLINK "http://www.funet.fi/pub/sci/bio/life/insecta/coleoptera/coccinellidae/" }{\insrsid5535255 {\*\datafield 
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http://www.funet.fi/pub/sci/bio/life/insecta/coleoptera/coccinellidae/}}}{\insrsid4744641  
\par Canadian English: }{\field{\*\fldinst {\insrsid4744641  HYPERLINK "http://www.discoverlife.org/nh/tx/Insecta/Coleoptera/Coccinellidae" }{\insrsid5535255 {\*\datafield 
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\insrsid4744641  
\par Gordon\rquote s Ladybird Page (}{\field{\*\fldinst {\insrsid4744641  HYPERLINK "http://www.earthlife.net/insect/coccinell.html" }{\insrsid5535255 {\*\datafield 
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\cs15\ul\cf2\insrsid4744641 http://www.earthlife.net/insect/coccinell.html}}}{\insrsid4744641  ) deals with the history and superstition of common ladybird names.
\par 
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\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\i\fs14\insrsid4744641 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\field{\*\fldinst {\fs24\insrsid4744641 HYPERLINK "http://www.peter-mabbott.supanet.com/londonla.htm"}{\insrsid5535255 {\*\datafield 
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\par }}